A Comparison of CASS: Cherokee, Anglo-Saxon and Saami
societies
Melissa
J. Dawson
Southern
New Hampshire University
HIS-117-Q3149
World Civilizations to 1500
Introduction
Societies can be viewed in a similar
manner as biological entities. Just as an animal or plant adjusts to changing
physical conditions around them, so do societies and civilizations adjust,
evolve and cease to exist when outside pressures become too much. However, in
that process they have formed a chain of societal norms that have responded to
changing political, religious or ethical factors in order to become the
societies we live in today. As such, there is value in learning more about
these past iterations and what each group learned, did not heed and how they
passed that shared historic memory on to us.
Moving back through the centuries I
believe the first groups were formed out of primal need. Need for extra hands
to hunt down large game, a recognition of protection in numbers and a wider
mating pool where more desired traits could be passed on to their offspring.
Only once the primal and basic needs of food, shelter and sex were no longer in
question, could humans begin to consider the more abstract things that form
what we today consider essential for a functional society: Laws, Art, Music,
Self-Expression, Spirituality and Science & Technology.
I will be looking at the following three
groups for further study and analysis: the Cherokee Nation Federations prior to
contact with Europeans [Americas], Laplanders known as the Saami, in what is
now Northern Finland, Sweden and Norway during the Iron Age [Northern
Scandinavia], and the Anglo-Saxons prior to the Norman Conquest of 1066 [Europe].
I will be looking at the diversity of how dwellings and communities were
structured and situated, as well as the evolving complex rules of law and
societal norms each group developed.
These three societies were chosen
for specific, and personal, reasons. On my Father’s side I have a
great-great-grandmother who was full Cherokee. Due to where the family was
living in the 19th Century they were not part of the infamous Trail
of Tears so therefore have maintained a longer continuity of experience. On my Mother’s
side, both great-grandparents immigrated to the United States from Raahe,
Finland. As such I have a great interest in many aspects of Finnish culture and
traditions, including the Laplanders and the indigenous Saami people. And
finally, I am a member of the Society for Creative Anachronism (SCA), my
persona is based on a woman living just outside of Berwick, England in the 11th
to 12th Century C.E. Yet the more I learn about the Anglos that
controlled the trade and water routes in that area prior to the Battle of
Hastings, the more interested I am in this society that was more
technologically advanced and sophisticated than we have given them credit for
in the past.
These three examples, just like all
other human created societies, states, and empires prior to 1500 C.E. were
initially formed in order to maximize the ability to feed themselves and their
families by distribution of the labor involved in collecting, preparing and
preserving food resources during varying conditions and seasons.
Research
and Analysis
The Structure of Complex Societies
During
the Eleventh Century C.E. the global climate was still in a warming trend that
would last another 200 years (Easterbrook, 2011). This meant that more Northern
areas, such as Lapland, which covers the top quarter of Norway, Sweden and
Finland were not as cold as they are today, leading to larger grazing lands for
reindeer. Crops that would be difficult to grow in modern day England were
cultivated by the Anglo-Saxons, such as grapes which in today’s climate would
not thrive. Some of the Cherokee clans originally residing along the present-day
US-Canadian border moved into the Southeast portion of the continent following
the herds of deer that had wider range options (Cherokee Nation). For most humans who
lived before 1500 C.E., one of the strongest driving forces of their daily
lives was finding enough food to sustain themselves. Before the innovations of
long-range weaponry or established domestication of food animals, the hunting
and bringing down of an animal, or number of animals, large enough to feed a
family or community was a very labor-intensive affair. And with little
guarantee of success, there were real advantages to having a coalition of
hunters assisting each other in this endeavor.
As these migrations were taking
place and different cultural groups moved into new lands, they brought with
them, and had to create or adjust, the parameters of how living in settlements
and community would function (The Anglo Saxons). When looking at where new
societies settle the common factor is always a source of clean water. Water is
vital for the survival of any community, even nomadic ones such as the Saami.
Then the function(s) of each member of that society needs to be agreed upon and
adhered to. Variations will always exist between groups based on cultural or
religious norms, what is most important is that everyone follows the same set
of rules, and that clear consequences are made known in response to the violation
of that group’s norms, such as written by an Anglo-Saxon King (King
Æthelberht’s Law Code).
A
Sami family in front of a goahti in the foreground and a lavvu
in the background (the picture is taken around 1900).
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The
Saami nomads of Lapland did not set up established communities or dwellings
until the late 1800s, as with most nomadic groups their housing structures
needed to be easily assembled, broken down, and transported from place to place
(Kildahl, 2013). Their livelihood was intrinsically tied to the seasonal
migration of their herds of reindeer along with spawning seasons of various
fish, both fresh and salt water varieties. As such their social structure was a
Patriarchy headed up by
the
eldest male of the household. Each Patriarch setting the rules for his
household and dictating the limits of what the others were, or were not,
allowed to do. Family units would come together at regular times to trade with
other societies that wanted the fine furs and leathers made by the Saami, they
were highly regarded and sought out for the quality of their goods (Demir,
2019).
Anglo-Saxon society was more established
and structured even during the start of their emigration. They were primarily Germanic
tribes who had crossed the Channel to take more productive lands and mineral
resources for themselves on the main British Isle. Some had arrived prior to
the onslaught of Viking raids along the East coast, others afterward. They brought with them established laws, a
court-system and settlement guidelines (Lambert,
2019). By the 11th Century C.E. the jockeying for power amongst the
nobles had been resolved and they had settled into four distinct and powerful
kingdoms, of which only Essex would remain after the Norman Invasion of 1066
C.E. Danelaw and the system of reciprocity, which they called comitatus,
were structuring the social standards of each Kingdom and village. These
communities were deeply connected to the land, and of the three societies
discussed in this paper, would be considered the wealthiest in terms of
material items. They built more permanent structures, some in stone and many
more of wood.
The Cherokee of the Southeastern
part of North America had a similar living arrangement that combined both
seasonal nomadic groups along with established villages. Villages were situated
at sections of a river that would offer not only food sources but a means of transportation
between other settlements (Georgia Tribe of Eastern Cherokee). By the 11th
Century C.E. they had not only a common language but long-standing sets of
regulations and rules that governed punishment, the process for declaring war
and agreed upon compensation options for a community
member that had been
wronged. Similar to the Anglo-Saxons there were class stratifications that fell
along the lines of skills and talents rather than just circumstances of birth.
For example, the best hunters and trackers would follow migrating herds as they
passed through the tribes’ territory to add to the community larder, while
others would follow and prepare hides and meat for transport (Cherokee Nation).
for
transport (Cherokee Nation).
Class
and Gender Structures
All
three of the societies this paper looks at had very different sets of hard and
fast regulations around the roles of men and women. The Cherokee did not sort
their communities into class
structures based upon who your parents were as the
Anglo-Saxon did. Instead your status within the village and larger tribe was
based upon your own merit and efforts. If you showed an aptitude for herbalism
and studied under the group’s shaman or healer, then it did not matter if your
parents were merely tenders of a field. And for millennia, the Cherokee have
been a Matriarchal Society, one of the few remaining such in the world today.
When the early European settlers met with local men of the tribe and offered
terms of working together or trade, they were shocked to be told that the men
had to return and discuss the offer with their women before accepting. Women of
the tribe control the majority of property and all children. When a woman
marries it has to be from another village, to keep from introducing inbred
issues. That husband then takes her family’s name and should they divorce he is
ousted back to the village of his birth with only what he brought with
A reconstruction of an
Anglo-Saxon woman based on a grave find in Dover dated to circa 575-625
AD. Dover Museum, Dover UK
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him
(History of American Women, 2018).
While
not willing to give that much power to women, the Anglo-Saxon did acknowledge
certain rights for women even within their carefully monitored class system.
Rulers of kingdoms, villages and families were always men, and it was not
likely that you could move up a class level from the one you were born into, so
a peasant would not have the ability to become a free-holder or a soldier. Yet
women were able to own land in their own names, assume the running of
a kingdom
or business after the death of a father or husband, retained ownership of her
own personal property and could not be forced into a marriage if she did not
wish, this was regardless of your social status. Each class knew their place
and their responsibilities. The Eoldorman expected martial service from the
thanes and thanes in return expected the Lord to offer them protection
(Lambert, 2019).
For
the Saami the role of women carried some honor by virtue of being primary
caretakers of children, passing on their culture and her skill in making
clothing to protect her family during the brutal winters. However, this was a
very patriarchal society with the father, or eldest male of a family group,
making the decisions regarding who may marry, when they would move onto new
lands and setting consequences for improper behavior as he saw fit. As
technology was introduced to the Saami and clothing could be purchased, the
role of the woman began to lose its importance, an issue that
modern-day Saami
women are working to change (Andrews, 2019). Similar to most other nomadic
cultures there is no defined class system, status in the great society is
acquired based on the size of one’s herd or success in trade.
Intellectual
and Religious Structures
When
they first arrived in England the Anglo-Saxons honored a variety of deities,
similar to those the Celts and Picts in the area revered. Deities were
associated with
specific events or phenomenon such as the changing of the
seasons, a good harvest, protection in childbirth etc. However, around the 5
th
Century C.E. there began to be a widespread conversion to Christianity, so that
by the 11
th Century C.E. all four Kingdoms were officially Christian
and a system of Priests,
Bishops and Monasteries had been established. Yet the traditional pagan feasts
and festivals were still celebrated by most people in respect to their roots
(Harrison, 2019). Gradually these became incorporated with Christian
celebrations such as Easter. Similar to other European societies of the time
the Anglo-Saxons were literate and kept copious written records about almost
everything related to community life: deaths, baptisms, treaties and royal
commands. Some of the best written records to survive from this period come
from the venerable Bede, and English Benedictine monk (Bede, 731).
The Saami never developed organized
religious institutions, the ancient groups practiced a form of polytheism and
animism. There is some archaeological evidence to suggest that early groups may
have been influenced in part by their contact with Norse Vikings and their
mythology. The belief system has a strong emphasis placed on the importance of
personal spirituality along
with
a deep connection to the natural and spiritual worlds (Mulk, 2008). The various
offshoots of Saami that shared grazing lands each had its own distinct language
originally, by the 12th Century C.E. many of these had blended into
the ten recognized today, though three are considered on the verge of
extinction. Their alphabet is loosely based on the Latin Vulgate characters
with an addition of what we would see as Nordic adaptations, however they
developed written language rather late in their cultural life (sometime in the
19th Century C.E.), and very little written records have survived
due to a lack of safe or permanent storage – and the impermeability of the
writing surfaces such as papyrus or hide (Kildahl, 2013).
Cherokee,
as with almost all the North American tribe, practiced an oral tradition of
history and culture for centuries. With each tribe having a specific language
there were also some common languages that allowed Mohicans to communicate with
the Saginaw and the Lakota with the Snoqualmish. Among all the Native American
tribes the Cherokee were the first to have a standardized written language, but
not until 1821 when Chief Sequoyah set it down (Library of Congress). Prior to
that the history of a village or group was kept alive by the
Story Tellers who
memorized all important events going back into the mists of time. There have
also been discovered in Caves throughout the American Southeastern States, drawings
and paintings that depict figures and animals. Not much is understood about
their meaning as they have only begun to be studied in the last decade (Hunt,
2019). The Cherokee religion not only has deities for specific functions but
they also believe that every living thing has a spirit and should be honored as
such which is why they pray to that creature’s spirit before a hunt, or before
felling a tree (Mails, 1992).
Economic
and Political Structures
As mentioned previously each of
these three civilizations did not live completely isolated and cut off from
others around them. The Saami were well known in the Trading networks that
sought skins, hides and furs for Southern markets, the Anglo-Saxons had a
stellar reputation for their intricate gold-work – and the discovery of the
Staffordshire Hoard highlighted their skill when it was unearthed in 2009.
Cherokee villages would trade with other tribes who had access to items not
within the tribe’s lands such as beads, ocean coastal shells or heavier furs
like bear. Metal objects were also prized trade goods since the Native American
tribes did not have the skill sets to forge their own. However, each had
distinctly different forms of governmental systems.
According
to their official history the Cherokee’s first contact with Europeans was a
meeting with the explorer Hernando DeSoto in 1540 (Cherokee.org). Regular
contact with Europeans and exposure to their methods of government would not
happen until the late 17th Century C.E. Where the Saami power player
was the male head of a household, in Cherokee villages it
was a council of
senior women and men who would discuss problems, trade offers and other events
that would affect the group as a whole and come to a consensus as to the
correct way to proceed. Cherokee society overall was organized into seven clans
– clan affiliation determined who you could marry, your political alignment and
was determined by who your mother was (Georgia Tribe). Each village had two distinct units of
government – the White Chief headed up a peacetime governing body and the Red
Chief who ruled over a governing body during times of war. Medicine Chiefs were
responsible to resolving disputes between the Red and White Chiefs.
Prior to 1500 C.E., and European
colonization, the Cherokee engaged in political battles, or war, over matters
such as water rights and access or to protect hunting grounds and resources.
Tribes traded with each other for items not readily accessible in their own
territory or for specific goods. The Cherokee being known for their fine
pottery pieces, just as others had acclaim for their weavings or decorative
works (NCAI.org). Like the Saami, the Cherokee Nation today still maintains its
own sovereignty within the modern political borders of another country – in
this instance, the United States.
As
a people made up of small family groups that lived a nomadic existence
following wild reindeer herds and migrating fish species, the Saami did not
have any centralized or codified set of laws until their way of life changed in
the 18th Century C.E. (Ojala,
2009). At that time the ruling houses of the
Nordic region began to pay closer
attention to the previously ignored frozen regions of their kingdoms and
started levying taxes and enforcing boundary rules. This caused the Saami to
convert to more sedentary breeders of domesticated reindeer. They did not have
recognized autonomy as a unique culture and allowed to have self-rule until the
late 19th – early 20th Century. As such they only have
begun to form a united political and economic identity that their ancestors in
the 11th Century C.E. did not need in order to support their
families. This change over to sedentary animal raising also forced them to move
from a bartering economy to one of coin and paper money – specific to the
national borders they reside in today (Wallerström, 2000).
In
direct contrast the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were organized into a strict hierarchy, ultimately
ruled by one king who had the final say in matters of State. Under the King
were other members of the Royal Family, Nobility, Bishops, and other leaders of
the Church. At the lowest rung were
slaves (Harrison, 2019). Writings from the
7
th Century C.E. clearly capture the law-code of King Æthelberht of
Kent, it outlines a complex system of punishment and compensation for
infractions,
based on the injured parties social standing and type of injury. For smaller
arbitration matters such as a boundary dispute, the local Freeholder or Lord
would be the definitive decision maker.
In
terms of their economy, typical to most societies of that time it was primarily
agriculture based with trade and barter being the main form of “currency”. Scheduled
Markets were held for trade and the acquisition of exotic goods and spices from
Asia, Northern Africa, Persia and the Mediterranean area. The regular market
days were the places where coin money was utilized (GCSE, 2018).
Historical
Perspective
When
considering the influence Global Networks have had on specific cultures there
can be seen both positive and negative after-effects. We are now aware that
various societies had contact with each other much earlier than we believed
just 20 years ago. Norse Vikings traded as far south as Spain, Northern
Europeans with the money to spend would acquire goods from the Mediterranean Sea
countries. Expansion of empires such as the Roman, Ottoman, Chinese Dynasties
and the Catholic Church made the access to “exotic” items easier decade after
decade (GCSE, 2018).
This
is the positive side of the influence – commerce that increases market share
and eventually lowers prices as goods become more commonly seen. Merchants can
make a better living; more people are exposed to items used by counterparts
thousands of miles away and local artisans are inspired to create replicas that
open up newer markets for those in the middle and lower classes.
The
down side however could be seen in the changing attitudes and appreciation for
different cultures and places. Even just 100 years ago traveling outside your
own territory or country meant that you would be exposed to different ways of
dress, food, music and customs. That for me was the thrill of travel – the
unknown and new. But with increased trade routes I wonder if some of the
excitement of the “new” was jaded by having already seen, tasted or heard those
things.
Conclusion
These three examples, the Cherokee, Saami
and Anglo-Saxon, just like all other human created societies, states, and
empires prior to 1500 C.E. were formed in order to maximize the ability to feed
themselves and their families by distribution of the labor involved in
collecting, preparing and preserving food resources during varying conditions
and seasons.
For the Cherokee, the rise and fall
of global empires did not affect them much at all. Prior to 1500 C.E. only a
small handful of European explorers had set foot on North America’s landmass,
and those were of small enough number to be viewed as a curiosity. When you
consider the millions of Native Americans living on the continent, the number
of those who died from exposure to a previously unknown pathogen, while tragic
for the local groups, did not have much of a ripple effect on the much larger
population. It would not be until the 17th Century C.E. when
colonization began in earnest that their way of life would be really
threatened.
As nomadic family groups crossing
the area known as Lapland, in a physical landscape that was being reclaimed by
ice and snow, the Saami were not much affected by changing empires, even along
their southern and eastern ranges. As they were inhabiting a place that had no
appeal for whichever kingdom was claiming that land as part of their country,
they were mostly left alone. The biggest change they probably saw was the
ethnic make up of those non-Laplanders they traded with and the fluctuation of
prices (Ojala, 2009). Even now the governments of Sweden, Norway and Finland
all recognize them as a separate ethnic group and place their lands under
protection in order to help them preserve this unique ethnic way of life.
Not being safely isolated from the
ongoing turmoil and changes in Europe, the Anglo-Saxons saw their final kingdom
fall when the Normans invaded in 1066 C.E. In the aftermath their way of life,
language and customs were quickly subsumed by another empire’s view of how
things should be done. And during the 400 years to follow, one ethnic society
after another were either assimilated into the current ruler’s paradigm,
meaning that a lot of their beliefs and art were lost and never recorded. Some
of it we are finding again thanks for archaeological digs, discovery of ancient
texts and scholars who are diligently working to translate those texts. And
what we are learning will forever change how we view those villages, kingdoms
and empires that rose and fell before 1500 C.E. That contrary to what we may
have been taught years ago – they were more sophisticated, technologically
advanced and socially structured than previously thought. That far from being
unwashed, illiterate scavengers living in caves or rickety built shelters they
were more like us. Aside from the distance of years – they are us.
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