******************************************************************
Abiding Beliefs, Changing Designs.
Melissa J. Dawson
FAS 320: History of Design
Southern New Hampshire University
22 June 2019
Title: Abiding Beliefs, Changing Designs.
Theme: Expressions of faith within the Judeo-Christian belief systems.
Thesis Statement: The period from 1880-1980 saw the fastest rates of change in recorded history: technology, cultural norms, clothing styles, social conflicts and design styles. Yet throughout, men and women used a variety of design aesthetics to express their search for, and belief in, their God.
Theme: Expressions of faith within the Judeo-Christian belief systems.
Thesis Statement: The period from 1880-1980 saw the fastest rates of change in recorded history: technology, cultural norms, clothing styles, social conflicts and design styles. Yet throughout, men and women used a variety of design aesthetics to express their search for, and belief in, their God.
Overview
Information: From the earliest days when people first gathered
together to worship in community, they have used art and design as part of their
rituals. Having symbols and images commonly understood within the group that
represent key beliefs and shared history served as another way of strengthening
the bonds between individuals, and their God.
This exhibit will look
at different design periods over the last 140 years through various
mediums such as textiles, metal work, paintings and sculpture. By looking
at samples of each
design movement side by side both the differences and similarities in the
work’s intent can be
identified and compared. Information relevant to historic, political and
social events occurring
within the time span for each design aesthetic will give some insight
into the impetus for that
period’s creative expression.
Within
the Judeo-Christian fellowships there is one major difference between the
groups in the images they employ. Within the Tanakh, the Hebrew Bible,
there are a number of references that specifically forbid idolatry. Within
traditional Judaism the definition of an idol, or graven image, includes
any painting, carving, sculpture or other item that uses part or all of a human
image to portray Yahweh, Jehovah, angels, heavenly bodies, or
other people mentioned in the Tanakh.
Much of these restrictions had to do with the surrounding cultures during the time of the Old Testament when societies had multiple idols and images that they worshipped as gods. While this restriction is not as deeply held outside of the Orthodox and Hasidic sects in the modern era, there is still less use of human imagery within the Jewish faith than within Christian churches.
Much of these restrictions had to do with the surrounding cultures during the time of the Old Testament when societies had multiple idols and images that they worshipped as gods. While this restriction is not as deeply held outside of the Orthodox and Hasidic sects in the modern era, there is still less use of human imagery within the Jewish faith than within Christian churches.
1880 – 1889: Arts & Crafts
Following the death of Abraham
Lincoln in the United States and the increased hostility towards the Jewish
communities in Russia there were additional social stressors that made people
eager for a simpler way of expressing themselves. Events that caused people to
feel that their world was changing too rapidly included:
- ·
Edison demonstrates the first electric
Christmas Lights
- ·
Gold is discovered at Sutter’s Mill
setting off a frenzy of greed
- ·
James Garfield is shot and dies soon after
from the infection and ineptitude of his doctors
- ·
The greatest technological feat to date is
opened to the public – the Brooklyn Bridge. But panic during the opening
weekend led to dozens of deaths and hundreds of injuries.
- ·
The explosion of Krakatoa near Java
effected global weather for years
- ·
Haymarket Riots in Chicago highlighted the
dissatisfaction of the labor class
- ·
Victims of Jack the Ripper began to be
found in London
- ·
The Johnstown Flood claimed 2,200 lives –
the worst recorded disaster at the time
These events helped to fuel the
Arts & Crafts design movement which promoted economic and social reforms
while moving away from the industrial mass production of furnishings that was
beginning to cost craftsmen their traditional livelihoods. The movement focused on the skill of the creator and an appreciation for his expertise.
beginning to cost craftsmen their traditional livelihoods. The movement focused on the skill of the creator and an appreciation for his expertise.
Image
1 – Hanukkah Lamp
|
Image
2 – Traveling Communion Set
|
 |
 |
Unknown Maker. “Hanukkah Lamp” circa 1888. Silver,
made in Germany. Accession Number JM 83-52, The Jewish Museum. www.thejewishmuseum.org
|
Horace Woodward and Company.
“Traveling Communion Set” Listed for sale online. Sterling, glass, wood.
1892. https://www.bryandouglas.co.uk
|
Both
of these objects, made for rites that commemorate key tenets of their faith,
reflect simple design lines that do not distract from the objects’ primary
purpose. By eliminating superfluous adornments each item takes a step back
and lets the meaning of the ritual associated with each, take primary focus
for the user and fellow worshiper. The flames of the candles that are lit
each night are reflected in the satiny silver of the Menorah, allowing those
gathered to reflect on the struggle and sacrifice of the Maccabees which they
are commemorating. The lack of embellishment likewise on the Communion Set
draws the giver, and receiver, of the Sacraments to the Wine and Bread
without distraction. Letting the deep meaning of the words and actions be the
focus.
|
|
1890
– 1909: Art Nouveau
Technology continued its advance
with the World’s Fair in Chicago, completion of the Eiffel Tower, creation of
Crayola Crayons, the steel industry growing, the founding of the Ford Company,
and the introduction of the first Nickelodeon in New York City. Music styles
were also changing and expanding as composers began to base new works on
ancient Native American songs, rhythms from the Negro spirituals, and old folk
tunes from various immigrant groups. Jazz and the Blues were beginning to be
heard by a wider audience along with gospel music. Cities were founding
orchestras and building impressive concert halls, while composers like Sousa
were gaining celebrity status. Amidst these other changes people were becoming
more aware of the world around them and its natural beauty. And events such as
the following influenced not just the general population but artists of various
mediums as well:
- ·
Antonin Dvořák comes
from Bohemia to the United States where he becomes very interested in American
music incorporating African American and Native American music.
- ·
Yellowstone is declared as
the first United States National Park followed by Yellowstone
- ·
Claude Debussy
writes “The Afternoon of a Faun” for orchestra
- ·
Sierra Club founded
- ·
Vesuvius erupts
- ·
Widespread devastation reported in the
wake of the San Francisco earthquake and the Galveston Island Hurricane
- ·
The Klondike Gold Rush generates some of
the first pictures of Alaska to the general public
- ·
Frederick Cook and Robert Peary both claim
to be the first men to reach the North Pole.
While not all of these events
showed nature in a positive way, they all contributed to
people’s appreciation of the various images of flora and fauna that were appearing as design motifs on home furnishings, jewelry and textiles and are the most recognizable aspects of Art Nouveau design.
people’s appreciation of the various images of flora and fauna that were appearing as design motifs on home furnishings, jewelry and textiles and are the most recognizable aspects of Art Nouveau design.
|
Image
3 – Old Testament Painting
 |
Image
4 – Tiffany Stained Glass
 |
Tissot,
James Jacques Joseph. “Jacob and Rachel at the Well”. Accession Number
X1952-114, The Jewish Museum. www.thejewishmuseum.org
The
artist has used a soft palette of neutrals and desert tones to reflect the dry
conditions of the region. Even the animals reflect the concept that water is a
vital component in the lands mentioned during Old Testament story. As such the
color of Rachel’s clothing suggests that not only is she the main figure of the
story, but the blue represents water and fertility in a culture that valued
both.
|
Tiffany, Louis Comfort. “Jesus and
the Children”. Stained glass, lead. 1904. Installed at the Arlington Street
Church, Boston, MA. www.asctiffany.org
Upon first look the viewer sees that green is the
predominant color in this window. That monochromatic palette highlights the
white of Christ’s robes and sets him apart as the central figure of the
composition. Green is symbolically the color of renewal and new life and those
concepts are mirrored with the images of the children. Tiffany’s skill with
color variations in the glass meant that he could get the effect of drapery
with fewer pieces of glass than prior designers. |
1907
– 1920: Cubism
Unlike some other
changes in design, Cubism was not a direct response to world events but more of
a shared concept between Georges Braque (French, 1882-1963) and Pablo Picasso
(Spanish, 1881-1973). They thought that emphasizing the two-dimensionality of
the plane of the canvas would allow them to reject the traditional view that
art had to rely on nature or the ideas of foreshortening and perspective which
had ruled the art world for centuries.
|
Image
5 - Destruction of the Ghetto
|
Image
6 - Crucifixion
|
 |
 |
|
Manievich, Abraham. “Destruction of the Ghetto,
Kiev”. Oil on Canvas. 1919. Accession Number 1991-30, The Jewish Museum. www.thejewishmuseum.org
The first visual impression of this piece is one of
darkness and heaviness. That comes from the somber palette of colors
punctuated with a restricted amount of hotter oranges and reds that suggest
burning and destruction. The feeling of oppression that comes from having the
crammed buildings in dark colors fill the entire canvas. This accurately
symbolizes the oppressive feel that the residents of the ghetto must have
felt while they lived there and as it was being destroyed.
|
Picasso, Pablo. “Crucifixion”.
Oil on board. 1930. Collection of the artist’s estate. www.pable-ruiz-picasso.net
Bright primary colors at first suggest a childish portrayal of the Biblical story. However, the composition and arrangement of the figures make it clear that the work is from a talented mature artist. The figure of Christ shown in a washed out pale grayish color not only brings the viewers focus to the central figure, but the color reinforces the theme of the story which is that a corpse is being removed from the cross. |
|
While
these two paintings appear very different at first glance, they do share a
common thread of symbolism. Aside from the Cubist style of each piece, their
message is one of destruction and loss that will eventually lead to a richer
new life, yet without the participants being aware of it at the time.
The pogroms that have occurred multiple times in Eastern Europe over the past seven centuries usually preceded more widespread unrest within a country and their reigning government. Feeling threatened by a strong minority group, such as the Jews who historically have managed large amounts of money, a local government would stir up resentment in order to get ethnically native people to attack the perceived “enemy”. Each time the residents would be persecuted and driven out, they would move their skills and talents to a new country or continent. The dark palette of the piece brings to mind the sense of oppression experienced by the community in Kiev along with the assaults, rapes and murders that occurred on a regular basis. The Picasso piece also highlights the sense of loss and chaos experienced by the followers of Jesus at the time of his death. They also had no idea at that moment whether everything they believed to be true was wiped out or if there was anything positive that would ever come from such a monstrous event. His palette of bright colors was more a personal preference and seem to be in direct contradiction to the gruesomeness of the moment. While Picasso stated in several interviews that he was not a practicing Christian, he did find the interpretation of pain and suffering an interesting concept to convey through his art. |
|
1910
– 1939: Art Deco
Combining rich materials, modern
style and fine craftsmanship Art Deco design represented the pinnacle of
glamour and luxury. It also was a return to more simple lines of Arts &
Crafts without the strict adherence to the sharp angular lines of that earlier
design style. The desire for a return to
a cleaner, more controlled aesthetic, may also have been a response to the
upheaval of the first global war and pandemic. The Great War, later called WWI,
is considered as the first “modern” war that included airplanes, chemical
weapons, 20 million deaths and around 21 million casualties. People had not
been exposed to this level of carnage, disfigurement and death since the
continent-wide plagues of the 13th and 14th centuries. On
the heels of that destruction the “Spanish Flu” began to affect people
worldwide. Estimates are that approximately 500 million people were infected
with a mortality rate of 10% - or 50 million. Death rates were highest in the
very young and the very old. This is speculated to be because the ages in
between had been exposed to a similar strain before the turn of the century and
had acquired a limited immunity to the 1918 H1N1 strain of the virus.
|
Image
7 – Wedding Dress
|
Image
8 – Art Deco Chasuble and Stole
|
 |
|
|
|
|
|
Unknown. Moroccan Jewish Wedding Dress. Circa 1920s.
Collection of the Center for Jewish History, NYC. www.cjh.org
The gold and magenta of this outfit are two of the
iconic colors of the Art Deco style. The various pieces of this ensemble are
traditional patterns from Morocco with alterations made to conform to
conservative Jewish requirements for modesty. These include a raised
neckline, length added to the sleeves and the full coverage for the hair. The
echo quilting in a Deco style along the overlapped skirt panel add a modern
embellishment to this very traditional garment.
|
The
Chasuble is one of the most recognizable vestments in the Eucharistic
traditions of the Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran churches. The basic shape
has not changed in several hundred years. The main color is cream which is
used for both the Easter and Christmas seasons. Since the basic colors and
cut of this cape-like garment has not changed significantly over time the way
to set it apart in the design spectrum is by looking at the bands of
decoration – their style and colors. In this sample the graphic bar shapes
and liberal use of metallic threads speak to the Deco style.
|
|
Both
of these garments were intended for the observance of special religious rites
within each faith. They share a similar exuberance of Art Deco motifs and the
use of metallic threads which give them that luxe look that the style
was all about.
The
wedding dress presents a lovely blend of cultural and religious traditions.
Traditional Jewish brides still opt for a more modest look with the head,
chest and arms fully covered as a mark of humility and respect for standing
in the presence of Adonai during the sacred marriage ceremony. Yet personal
and current styling of the Art Deco period can be seen in the sinuous lines
of quilting stitches in the corner of the velvet skirt. The headdress and
style of each of the eight included articles of clothing reflect the North
African culture as well.
The chasuble is the traditional overgarment still worn by Catholic, Anglican, Orthodox and Episcopalian priests during the celebration of the Eucharist. It has evolved from a traveling cloak common in the Late Roman period. In its earliest form it can be seen on statuary portraying saints and martyrs on European cathedrals. While it is common to see ornate embroidery and metalwork decorating liturgical vestments of many types, the items rarely followed current design trends. |
|
1940
- 1979: Postmodernism
With resource and labor allocations
focused on the support of the troops during World
War II, the
1940s did not have much change in the way of design. However, after the servicemen
returned
there began a movement towards streamlining the lines of furniture, automobiles
and
architecture.
Manufacturers of new plastics and synthetic materials were in search of new
markets
since the
military was no longer their primary customers. Moving into the 1960s the
design style
became more
overblown and brightly colored. The psychedelic designs and colors were
reflective
of the
perceived chaos, drug use and free-wheeling lifestyles of the Hippie culture
that seemed to
become part
of more mainstream patterns in textiles by the end of the decade. But by the
early
1970s,
political and social turmoil made many feel adrift, and there was a turn back
towards nature
and some of
the aesthetics of the Arts & Crafts Movement. Some of the events that
helped open
the
American public to the simplicity of Postmodernism included:
- ·
Assassinations of John F. Kennedy, Martin
Luther King, Robert F. Kennedy and Malcolm X
- · Nelson Mandala sentenced to life imprisonment
- ·
Relations between North and South Vietnam
continue to worsen
- ·
Watts riots in Los Angeles
|
Image
9 – Synagogue
|
Image
10 – Sanctuary
|
 |
  |
|
Clean lines and the use of wood are two of the most
recognizable aspects of the late mid-century modernism style. Woodwork,
without intricate embellishment, became a focal point that is reminiscent of
the Arts & Crafts movement of the prior century. Clear colors and
abstract images reflect not just the restriction of Jewish design that forbid
the representation of human images, but reflect the increased awareness of
nature that arose from the Environmental movement.
|
Sanctuary – Our Lady of Pompeii Roman Catholic
Church. Vineland, NJ. 1968 https://www.northjersey.com/
Upon entering this space the sharp angles of the
ceiling capture the eye. These angles and simplicity of visible construction
harken back to the appreciation of craftsmanship that first came into the
design realm during the Arts & Crafts movement. Most Christian
sanctuaries base their ceiling shape on the image of the keel of an
overturned boat. The visual heaviness of the unadorned ceiling is kept from
feeling oppressive by the height of the space and the windows that let
colored light in. In keeping with the design specifications of the decade,
the stained-glass windows have moved away from the ornately decorated images
of Biblical stories to a more sweeping curve of abstract shapes.
|
|
The
similarities of the two worship spaces include the rich woodwork in the
walls, ceilings, height of the ceiling and stained-glass windows. They also
share similar lines in the backs of the seats, even though one is equipped
with individual seats and the other with pews. Traditional wood flooring with
wool carpets were being replaced with new synthetic carpeting that were said
to be easier to clean and appropriate for high traffic areas. Similar
materials were coving chair seats and pew cushions.
Each
space also exudes a sense of calm and serenity. The pared down decoration let
the light coming through the windows bath the rooms in a warm diffused glow
that is not refracted by busy adornments. This reinforces the sense of peace
that helps bring people into a state of worship. The use of wood and
naturalistic imagery in the stained-glass pieces reflect the extant movement
of environmentalism that was taking hold. The sinuous curves of the stained-glass
images juxtapose against the sharp angles of the woodwork throughout.
|
|
1980
– Present: American Modernism
American Modernism evolved from a
variety of different styles and cultural movements. It is often defined by a
rejection of traditional narratives with attitudes of irony and skepticism. The
movement focuses on morality, social challenges and pluralism. It is often seen
as design that rejects a lot of traditional beliefs and values, however that
can often be a just the interpretation of the artist or the viewer.
In matters of faith, and those who
create images that symbolize their reaching for a better understanding of the
universe and God – any style can be sacred. We see in American Modernism
snippet and echoes of all of the design images that have come before. Artists
who identify as working in this fashion are given the freedom to pick and
choose the elements from a variety of styles that work together to convey their
intended message, even when the message is very hard to receive.
|
Image
11 – Miami Beach Holocaust Memorial
|
   |
Treister, Kenneth. “Miami Beach Holocaust Memorial.
Bronze, 1987. Located in the middle of the memorial park. http://holocaustmemorialmiamibeach.org
Reflected in the still pond at its base, a green
verdigris hand reaches out from the earth. The tendons and ligaments of the
wrist and fingers suggest a straining and reaching for something better than
the ground it emerges from. Closer examination at the texture of the forearm
reveals that it is not the material of clothing, or botanical growth that is
springing froth, Instead, it is a collection of figures, faces set in rictus
of agony, terror and pleading. They represent the millions of Jews who were
tortured, starved and killed during the Holocaust. People with dreams,
families and lives that were brutally cut short by unspeakable evil. Yet even
in the depths of their despair they still reached out in supplication to
Yeshua to fulfill his promise of grace and salvation.
In an interview for the
Miami Herald Mr. Treister was quoted saying: “Imagine you’re in a concentration camp in Poland
surrounded by the Nazis, no communication with the outside world and you’re
suffering and you’re a martyr, you’re giving up your life. Each one probably
died thinking that no one would ever care, no one would ever know, no one
would ever remember. “Six million moments of death cannot be understood…But
we must all try.”
This public monument
was surrounded in controversy from the first moment the design was revealed.
Many felt it was grotesque or exploitive, that it was too much anguish to be
portrayed next to the raucous entertainments of the city’s South Beach area.
Yet the reality of what too many suffered in concentration camps across
Europe should not be sugar coated to made more “comfortable” in order to
appease the viewer.
|
|
Image
12 – Christ of the Abyss
|
  |
|
Galletti, Guido. “Il Cristo Degli Abissi (Christ of
the Abyss)”. Bronze and concrete, 1961. Located in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary. https://fla-keys.com/key-largo/
First impressions of this statue can be confusing
for some viewers who are seeing it second hand as a picture, especially if
they do not know that it stands underwater. The bronze patina is adorned with
living flora and fauna that inhabit the reefs surrounding it. Christ’s hands
reach upward with open arms and welcome divers that explore that area.
The statue is a replica of the
artist’s original located in the Mediterranean. It was created to commemorate
the death of the first Italian to use SCUBA gear in 1947. The simplistic
lines of Christ with his arms raised in benediction is naturally supplemented
by the naturally growing corals and seawater flora are reminiscent of the Art
Nouveau style where natural motifs are imposed over straight lines. The
movement of the water and variety of fish that inhabit the area become
another embellishment of the image – making the design dynamic and ever
evolving. Rather like the movement of American Modernism.
|
|
In
looking at Figures 11 and 12 there are similar motifs and symbolism between
them. In each statue the strongest form is the hand, hands that are reaching
up and reaching out towards God.
In the Holocaust Memorial the message is that mankind, in
their suffering and struggles, seek the hand of Abba (the Father) to
bring them through their tribulations. The figures that are erupting from the
forearm of the sculpture, even as they writhe in anguish and are clearly in
torment, also are reaching towards their G-d. Despite the circumstances that
did its best to break their identity as Jews they held on to their heritage. One
of the scriptures that speaks to this image is Isaiah 41:10 “Fear not, for I am
with you; be not dismayed, for I am your God; I will strengthen you, I will
help you, I will uphold you with my righteous right hand.”
The
Christ sculpture also features the predominate image of the human hand.
Jesus’ hands reach upward in supplication to His Father as well as
benediction for humankind. Similar to the Holocaust statue this image is
about the outward, and inward, reaching for the Divine that both traditions
hold as a core tenet of their faith. The placement of the statue on the Keys’
floor symbolizes the idea that no matter what depths, physically or
emotionally, we find ourselves the grace and presence of The Almighty is able
to reach down and find us. Scripture speaks to this in John 10:28 “I give them
eternal life, and they will never perish, and no one will snatch them out of
my hand.”
The
other key symbol in both pieces is water. Judaism and Christianity use water
as part of their key rituals. It represents survival, all life is dependent
on water and without it death is assured. It also stands for cleansing.
Whether it is the washing of face and hands upon rising, the ritual mikvah
after menses, Baptism or a priest washing his hands before the Eucharist
water has always played a large part in religious observances. Ezekiel 36:25-26
“I will
sprinkle clean water on you, and you shall be clean from all your
uncleannesses, and from all your idols I will cleanse you. And I will give
you a new heart, and a new spirit I will put within you.”
|
Conclusion:
Over
the last century numerous pundits, editors, sociologists and talk-show hosts
have made statements regarding the decline of attendance at religious services.
While certain congregations have seen a drop-off in the number of people who
attend weekly services, this does not mean that less people believe in God within
either the Jewish or Christian paradigm. As the items within this exhibit have
hopefully pointed out – trends in attendance, the social make up of a
congregation or in design trends have not proven to be a hinderance to
expressions of belief. Men and women have used current design trends, materials
and techniques to create objects of beauty that support a universal journey of
seeking meaning and purpose in life outside of themselves. The ongoing tension
between petty human desires and the yearning for connection to the Divine.
The true
work of art is but a shadow of the divine
perfection.
Michelangelo
REFERENCES
Agam, Yaacov. Artist Biography. Artnet. 2019. http://www.artnet.com/artists/yaacov-agam/
Association for Public Art. Monument to Six Million
Jewish Martyrs. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 2019. https://www.associationforpublicart.org/artwork/monument-to-six-million-jewish-martyrs/
Beckerman, Jim. Space-age Churches, from an era of hope.
North Jersey Record. 18 Apr 2019. https://www.northjersey.com/story/entertainment/2019/04/18/back-future-mid-century-modern-churches/3424938002/
Clarke, Harry. Artist Biography. Artist’s Website.
2019. http://www.harryclarke.net/
Collections. Yeshiva University
Museum. New York City, New York. 2019. http://www.yumuseum.org/visit/directions/
First Presbyterian
Church of Stamford, Connecticut. 2019. https://www.fishchurch.org/History-Architecture
History Timelines. Sandbox
Networks, Inc., publishing as Infoplease. 2019. https://www.infoplease.com/history-and-government/
Morris, Catrin. American Style
Through the Decades: The Seventies. Apartment Therapy. 07 Jul 2011. https://www.apartmenttherapy.com/american-style-150743
Perry, Kellen. The Decade That
Taste Forgot: Lavish and Luxe Interiors of The 1970s. All That’s
Interesting. 07 Jul 2017. https://allthatsinteresting.com/1970s-interior-design#1
Raizman,
David. History of Modern Design. Pearson Prentice Hall. 2011.
Religion
Category. eBay online auction site. 2019. www.ebay.com
Tiffany
Windows Education Center at Arlington Street Church. Boston, Massachusetts. 2019.
https://www.asctiffany.org
